Glossary

media type="custom" key="5181163" > //Example:// Think of your favorite song and hum it to yourself. The memory of how the melody sounds is an acoustic code in long-term memory. > //Example:// If you think of a Christmas tree or the car you would buy if you had enough money, you will most likely see images of these things in your mind. You do so because you have visual codes for them. > //Example:// If you visit Israel, you may notice that the children can sing the top rock songs from the United States but that they do not know what the words mean. This is because they are using an acoustic code to remember a song and sing it, but they do not have a semantic code for the meaning of the words. > //Example:// Memories of your kindergarten class, your second-grade teacher, or the first home you lived in are old memories. They have been stored for quite some time. > //Example:// Whenever you remember anything, you are retrieving that memory from storage. Some memories are retrieved so quickly that you are unaware of the process. Answer the following questions: How old are you? How many people have been president of the United States? Both questions require you to retrieve information, but the retrieval process is much easier for the first question than for the second. > //Example:// The memory of your first pony ride, a surprise birthday party that you held for a friend, or your first day of college is an episodic memory. > //REMEMBER:// Episodic memories are episodes that involved you. > //Example:// Knowing that the freezing point is 32 degrees Fahrenheit, that red lights mean stop, and that the capital of the United States is Washington, D.C., are all examples of semantic memory. You probably cannot remember the specific time or episode during which you learned these facts. > //Example:// Knowing how to waltz, do a somersault, tie a tie, and drive a car are all procedural memories. > //Example:// While you are taking an exam, you are using explicit memory to retrieve information regarding the questions. > //Example:// Although you don't understand why, you are nervous whenever you wait for a bus on a specific corner. Stored subconsciously is the memory of a frightening event from your childhood in which a stranger approached you at that corner and you ran away. > //REMEMBER:// Maintenance rehearsal does not require much processing and is effective for encoding information into short-term memory. Elaborative rehearsal requires a great deal of processing and is effective for encoding into long-term memory. > //Example:// Kan arrives in New York to visit his cousin Zhou but loses Zhou's phone number. Kan calls directory assistance and the operator tells him the number. Kan repeats it over and over to himself while he inserts coins for the call. > //REMEMBER:// Maintenance rehearsal __maintains__ information in short-term memory. > //Example:// Ursula is a world-class shopper. She has a mental image of all the major cities she has shopped in and images of the locations of all her favorite stores on each street. When Ursula wants to store information about a new store, she uses her mental image and places the new store on its street. She thinks about the new store in relationship to the stores surrounding it. Ursula is not just repeating the address of the new store but is also relating it to the addresses of all the other stores that she knows. > //REMEMBER:// New information is __elaborated__ with information already in long-term memory. The new address is elaborated by relating its location to all the old addresses of stores already in long-term memory. > //Example:// Samantha studied for an auto mechanics test by spending many weekends with her head under the hood of a car. However, much to her surprise, when it came time to take the test, the professor handed out a multiple-choice exam. Samantha, who felt that she had really learned the material, scored poorly. According to the transfer-appropriate processing model, Samantha did not do well because she encoded the material by applying what she had learned from the text, but the exam asked her only to retrieve specific facts. Samantha's encoding process wasn't appropriate for the retrieval process required by the exam. > //REMEMBER:// Think of this model as stating that the encoding process that __transfers__ information into long-term memory must be __appropriate__ for (match) the retrieval cues. > //Example:// Zoë's knowledge that the term //neonate// means "newborn" is linked to her memory of seeing a premature infant taken to a neonatal unit. Both //neonate// and //neonatal// are connected to her memory that //neo// means "new." When Zoë thinks of //neonate,// an image of her nephew as a newborn is also readily accessible. This background made it easier for her to understand that a //neofreudian// is a person who developed a new version of Freud's theory. > //Example:// Imagine going to New York's Times Square for New Year's Eve. The crowd is immense. Suddenly, you see someone waving a sparkler in front of you. Even though your eyes and ears are being hit with a variety of stimuli, your sensory registers will retain information about the person with the sparkler because you "selected" that particular set of stimuli to "attend" to. > //Example:// If you look up a phone number and repeat it to yourself until you finish dialing, you will have kept it active in your short-term memory. However, it is likely that you will have forgotten it by the time you get off the phone, because you were using your working memory to process the new information coming in during the conversation. > //Example:// When you have a conversation with someone, you think about what they are saying and use that information to frame a response. You are using your working memory to do this. > //Example:// Use a telephone book to help you test your own immediate memory span. Read the first two names at the top of the page, look away, and then try to recall them. Then read the next three names, look away, and try to recall them. Continue this process, using a longer list each time, until you cannot repeat the entire list of names. The number of names that you can repeat perfectly is your immediate memory span. > //Example:// During her first night as a waitress, Bridget needed all five to nine chunks in short-term memory to remember one order for one person. For example, a drink before dinner, a drink with dinner, a main dish, a type of salad dressing, a type of potato, and whether the customer wanted cream, sugar, or both with coffee made up five to nine chunks of information. After two years of waitressing, Bridget can easily hold in memory four to eight people's complete food and drink orders. Each person's order had become one chunk of information. > //REMEMBER:// Chunks can be anything--letters, numbers, words, names, or locations--just to list a few. The more information you can condense or group into one chunk, the more information you can hold in short-term memory. > //REMEMBER://__Primacy__ means "being first." The primacy effect is the remembering of the first words in a list better than other words in the list. > //Example:// After hearing all her students' names once, Leslie tries to recite them one by one. She remembers the names of students in the first two rows (primacy effect) and the names of the students in the last two rows (recency effect), but she has difficulty recalling the names of students in the middle two rows. > //REMEMBER://__Recency__ means "that which occurred most recently." The last items of a list are presented most recently. > //Example:// On a multiple-choice exam, the answer appears somewhere in the question. Some of the words in the correct answer should jog your memory and allow you to answer the question correctly. > //Example:// When taking his exam in his regular classroom, Leon's memory for lecture information is improved by glancing around at the chalkboard, peeling paint, and lecturer's desk. Although he doesn't realize it, he recalls the discussion of the opponent-process theory of color vision better because he is among familiar classmates and surroundings. Unfortunately, he does not remember as much of the information he studied in his room with the stereo blaring because few of the retrieval cues associated with that learning exist in the quiet classroom environment where he is taking the exam. > //Example:// In the evening when she studied psychology, Lydia had several cups of coffee to keep her alert. The next morning, she did not do well on the quiz. Later, when drinking coffee with some friends, she was in the same state as when she studied for the quiz, and, to her amazement, she remembered some of the material that had escaped her during the quiz. > //Example:// When Jane thinks about pizza, this activates other concepts such as food, delivery, cost, etc. > //Example:// If your schema for a classroom is a square room filled with desks, upon seeing people seated on pillows in a round room you might be likely to classify it as a lounge. > //Example:// If it took a subject twenty repetitions to learn a list of items but only five repetitions to relearn the list a semester later, there would be a savings of 75 percent. > //Example:// Marissa learned Spanish, but has not tried to speak it in years. When Marissa tries to say, "Hello; how was your day?" to her roommate, she cannot remember the vocabulary necessary. > //REMEMBER://__Retro__ means "back." New information goes back and interferes with old information. > //Example:// If you have ever learned something incorrectly and then tried to correct it, you may have experienced proactive interference. Young children who take music lessons once a week experience this. They learn an incorrect note, and at their lesson the next week, their teacher points out the mistake. However, it is very difficult to play the correct note because the old memory of the wrong note interferes with the new memory of the correct note. > //REMEMBER://__Pro__ means "forward." Old information goes forward and interferes with new information. > //Example:// People with anterograde amnesia will not be able to remember the new people they meet, because they are unable to form new memories. > //REMEMBER:// Anterograde amnesia is a loss of memory for the future, or after some point in time. > //REMEMBER://__Retro__ means "backward." The memory loss goes back in time. > //Example:// To remember the name "Hathaway," you might picture the person coming "half the way" to you. || > //REMEMBER:// Psychologists consider people similar to information-processing systems in the way they take in information, pass it through several stages, and finally act on it. > //Example:// Susan and several of her friends are standing in her office looking for her keys. Suddenly, Dave calls out, "Hey!" and throws her the keys. The reaction time is the time it takes Susan to look up and get ready to catch the keys after hearing Dave call out. > //REMEMBER://__Evoke__ means to "cause" or "produce." Stimuli evoke, or produce, small changes in the brain. Psychologists have instruments that allow them to record these changes for study. > //Example:// About 300 milliseconds after a stimulus is presented, a large positive peak--the P300--occurs. The timing can be affected by how long sensory processing and perception take. > //Example:// A square is a formal concept. All members of the concept are shapes with four equal sides and four right-angle corners. Nothing that is not a square shares these properties. > //Example:// The concept of vegetable is a natural concept. There are no rules or lists of features that describe every single vegetable. Many vegetables are difficult to recognize as such because this concept is so "fuzzy." Tomatoes are not vegetables, but most people think they are. Rhubarb is a vegetable, but most people think it is not. > //Example:// Try this trick on your friends. Have them sit down with a pencil and paper. Tell them to write down all the numbers that you will say and the answers to three questions that you will ask. Recite about fifteen numbers of at least three digits each, and then ask your friends to write down the name of a tool, a color, and a flower. About 60 to 80 percent of them will write down "hammer," "red," and "rose" because these are common prototypes of the concepts tool, color, and flower. Prototypes come to mind most easily when people try to think of a concept. > //Example://__Carla (concept) likes to buy flowers (concept)__ is a proposition that shows a relationship between two concepts. __Dogs bark__ is a proposition that shows a relationship between a concept (dog) and a property of that concept (bark). > //Example:// Dana's schema for books is that they are a bound stack of paper with stories or other information written on each page. When her fifth-grade teacher suggests that each student read a book on the computer, Dana is confused until she sees that the same information could be presented on a computer screen. Dana has now revised her schema for books to include those presented through electronic media. > //Example:// As a college student, you have a script of how events should transpire in the classroom: students enter the classroom, sit in seats facing the professor, and take out their notebooks. The professor lectures while students take notes, until the bell rings and they all leave. > //Example:// There is a toy that is a board with different types of latches, fasteners, and buttons on it. As children play with it, they form a mental model of how these things work. Then, when they see a button, perhaps a doorbell, they will have an understanding of how it works. > //Example:// Lashon's friend asks, "How do you get to the mall from here?" To answer the question, Lashon pictures the roads and crossroads between their location and the mall and is able to describe the route for his friend to travel. > //Example:// To solve the math problem 3,999,999 1,111,111 using an algorithm, you would multiply the numbers out: > 3,999,999 > 1,111,1114,444,442,888,889 > This computation takes a long time. You could, however, use a heuristic to solve the problem: round the numbers to 4,000,000 1,000,000, multiply 4 1, and add the appropriate number of zeros (000,000,000,000). Although simpler and faster, this heuristic approach yields a less accurate solution than that produced by the algorithmic approach. > //Example:// Here is an incorrect syllogism: All cats are mammals (premise), and all people are mammals (premise). Therefore, all cats are people (conclusion). > //Example:// You are trying to think of a four-letter word for "labor" to fill in a crossword puzzle. Instead of thinking of all possible four-letter combinations (an algorithmic approach), you think first of synonyms for labor--job, work, chore--and choose the one with four letters. > //Example:// Jean is getting ready to move to the city. Her parents lived there ten years ago and were familiar with the area that she wants to move into now. Ten years ago it was an exceedingly dangerous neighborhood. Since that time, however, many changes have taken > //Example:// After examining a patient, Dr. White recognizes symptoms characteristic of a disease that has a base-rate frequency of 1 in 22 million people. Instead of looking for a more frequently occurring explanation of the symptoms, the doctor decides that the patient has this very rare disease. She makes this decision based on the similarity of this set of symptoms (example) to those of the rare disease (a larger class of events or items). > //Example:// A friend of yours has just moved to New York City. You cannot understand why he has moved there since the crime rate is so high. You hear from a mutual acquaintance that your friend is in the hospital. You assume that he was probably mugged because this is the most available information in your mind about New York City. > //Example:// The last time his CD player door wouldn't open, Del tapped the front of it and it popped open. This time when it won't open, Del does the same thing--not noticing that the power isn't even on! > //Example:// Lisa is very creative in her use of the objects in her environment. One day she dropped a fork down the drain of the kitchen sink. She took a small refrigerator magnet and tied it to a chopstick. She then put the chopstick down the drain, let the fork attach itself to the magnet, and carefully pulled the fork out of the drain. //If// Lisa had viewed the magnet as being capable only of holding material against the refrigerator, and the chopstick as being useful only for eating Chinese food, she would have experienced functional fixedness. > //Example:// Lydia plays chess against a computer that has been programmed with rules, strategies, and outcome probabilities. > //Example:// Juan prefers large classes because he likes the stimulation of hearing many opposing viewpoints. In choosing courses, Juan decides whether the positive utility of the preferred class size is greater than the negative utility of the inconvenient meeting time. > //Example:// Sima doesn't have enough money for this month's rent. She knows that going on a shopping spree would be a wonderful stress-reliever in the short run, but the increase in her amount of debt would outweigh the enjoyment in the long run. > //Example:// The German and English languages use the same symbols (Roman characters), but each has a different set of rules for combining those symbols. The Russian language has different symbols (Cyrillic characters) as well as different rules of grammar. > //Example:// Phonemes are sounds that make a difference in the meaning of a word. By changing the beginning phoneme, the meanings of the following words are changed: __b__in, __th__in, __w__in. > //REMEMBER://__Phono__ means "sound." Phonemes are sounds that change the meaning of a word. > //Example:// Any prefix or suffix has meaning. The suffix __s__ means "plural," as in the words bat__s__ or flower__s__. The prefix __un__ means "not," as in __un__happy or __un__rest. __S__ and __un__ are morphemes for the words bat, flower, happy, and rest. > //Example:// The word __unwise__ is made up of two morphemes: __un__ and __wise__. > //REMEMBER://__Syn__ means "together" (as in synchronized). Syntax is the set of rules that determines the order of words when they are put together. > //Example:// The sentence, "Wild lamps fiddle with precision" has syntax, but incorrect semantics. > //Example://__The eating of the animal was grotesque__. The surface structure of this sentence is the order of the words. The deep structure contains at least two meanings: The way the animal is eating could be grotesque, and the way people are eating an animal could be grotesque. > //Example:// While Patrick plays, he says, "ba-ba-ba." > //Example:// Laura says "ba" to stand for bottle, ball, or anything else that starts with a __b__. Amy always asks for milk, even if she wants something else to drink, such as water or juice. [|00510|00520|00530|00540|00550|00560|00570|00580|00590|00600|00610|00620|00630|00640|00650|00660|00010|00020|00030|00040|00050|00060|00070|00080|00090|00180|00100|00110|00120|00130|00140|00150|00160|00170|00190|00200|00000|01000|02000|03000|04000|05000|06000|07000|08000|09000|10000|11000|12000|13000|14000|15000|16000|17000|18000|19000|99000|&ns=1454&uid=4865791&rau=4865791] Home Page
 * Glossary Here are some key terms to help review for the final!
 * 1) __Encoding__ is the process of coding information so that it can be placed in sensory, short-term, or long-term memory. There are three types of encoding: visual, acoustic, and semantic. (see Basic Memory Processes)
 * 2) __Acoustic encoding__ represents the sounds we hear in memory. (see Basic Memory Processes)
 * 1) __Visual encoding__ represents the images we see in memory. (see Basic Memory Processes)
 * 1) __Semantic encoding__ represents the meaning of experiences or factual information in memory. (see Basic Memory Processes)
 * 1) __Storage__ is the process of maintaining or keeping a memory. (see Basic Memory Processes)
 * 1) __Retrieval__ is the process of transferring memories from storage to consciousness. (see Basic Memory Processes)
 * 1) __Episodic memory__ is any memory of a specific event that happened while you were present. (see Types of Memory)
 * 1) __Semantic memory__ contains factual knowledge. This memory differs from episodic memory in that its contents are not associated with a specific event. (see Types of Memory)
 * 1) __Procedural memory__ (skill memory) holds "how-to" methods or processes that usually require some motor movement. (see Types of Memory)
 * 1) __Explicit memory__ is the process of purposely trying to remember something. (see Explicit and Implicit Memory)
 * 1) __Implicit memory__ is the subconscious recall or influence of past experiences. (see Explicit and Implicit Memory)
 * 1) The __levels-of-processing model__ holds that differences in how well something is remembered reflect the degree or depth to which incoming information is mentally processed. (see Levels of Processing)
 * 1) __Maintenance rehearsal__, repeating information over and over, keeps information in short-term memory. (see Levels of Processing)
 * 1) __Elaborative rehearsal__ involves thinking about how new material is linked or related in some way to information already stored in long-term memory. It is an effective method of encoding information into long-term memory. (see Levels of Processing)
 * 1) The __transfer-appropriate processing__ model suggests that memory retrieval will be improved if the encoding method matches the retrieval method. (see Transfer-Appropriate Processing)
 * 1) __Parallel distributed processing__ (or __PDP__) models of memory suggest that the connections between units of knowledge are strengthened with experience. Tapping into any connection (via a memory process) provides us with access to all the other connections in the network. (see Parallel Distributed Processing)
 * 1) The __information-processing__ model of memory has three stages: sensory memory; short-term, or working, memory; and long-term memory. (see Information Processing)
 * 2) __Sensory memory__ holds sensory information for a fraction of a second in sensory registers. If the information is attended to and recognized, perception takes place, and the information can enter short-term memory. (see Sensory Memory)
 * 3) __Sensory registers__ hold incoming sensory information until it is processed, recognized, and remembered. There is a sensory register for each sense. (see Sensory Memory)
 * 4) __Se____lective attention__ determines what information is held in sensory registers. Information that is not attended to decays and cannot be processed any further. (see Sensory Memory)
 * 1) __Short-term memory__ receives information that was perceived in sensory memory. Information in short-term memory is conscious but quite fragile and will be lost within seconds if not further processed. (see Short-Term Memory and Working Memory)
 * 1) __Working memory__ is the part of the memory system that allows us to mentally manipulate information being held in short-term memory. (see Short-Term Memory and Working Memory)
 * 1) An __immediate memory span__ is the largest number of items or chunks of information that you can recall perfectly from short-term memory after one presentation of the stimuli. Most people have an immediate memory span of five to nine items. (see Storage Capacity of Short-Term Memory)
 * 1) __Chunks__ are meaningful groupings of information that you place in short-term memory. The immediate memory span of short-term memory is probably between five and nine chunks of information. Each chunk contains bits of information grouped into a single unit. (see Storage Capacity of Short-Term Memory)
 * 1) The __Brown-Peterson procedure__ is a research method that prevents rehearsal. A person is presented with a group of three letters and then counts backward by threes from an arbitrarily selected number until a signal is given. The counting prevents the person from rehearsing the information. (see Duration of Short-Term Memory)
 * 2) __Long-term memory__ is the stage of memory in which the capacity to store new information is believed to be unlimited. (see Long-Term Memory)
 * 3) The __primacy effect__ occurs when we remember words at the beginning of a list better than those in the middle of the list. (see Distinguishing Between Short-Term and Long-Term Memory)
 * 1) The __recency effect__ occurs when we remember the last few words on a list better than others on the list. The list's final items are in short-term memory at the time of recall. (see Distinguishing Between Short-Term and Long-Term Memory)
 * 1) __Retrieval cues__ help us recognize information in long-term memory. In other words, they help you "jog" your memory. (see Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity)
 * 1) The __encoding specificity principle__ maintains that if the way information is encoded and the way it is retrieved are similar, remembering the information will be easier. (see Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity)
 * 2) In __context-dependent__ memory, the environment acts as a retrieval cue. This means that it is easier to remember information when you are in the location (context) where you originally learned that information. (see Context and State Dependence)
 * 1) In __state-dependent__ memory, your psychological state acts as a retrieval cue. When you are trying to remember, if you are in the same psychological state you were in at the time of learning, you will retrieve more material. (see Context and State Dependence)
 * 1) __Spreading activation__ describes the way in which information is retrieved from long-term memory according to semantic network theories. Whenever a question is asked, neural activation spreads from those concepts contained in the question down all paths related to them. (see Semantic Networks)
 * 1) __Schemas__ are summaries of knowledge about categories. We tend to automatically place people, objects, and events into classes. (see Schemas)
 * 1) The __method of savings__ is a term introduced by Ebbinghaus to refer to the difference in the amount of time required to relearn material that has been forgotten and the amount of time it took to learn the material initially. (see How Do We Forget?)
 * 1) __Decay__ is a mechanism whereby information not used in long-term memory gradually fades until lost completely. (see Why Do We Forget?: The Roles of Decay and Interference)
 * 1) __Interference__ is a mechanism whereby the retrieval or storage of information in long-term memory is impaired by other learning (retroactive and proactive interference). (see Why Do We Forget?: The Roles of Decay and Interference)
 * 2) __Retroactive interference__ occurs when information in memory is displaced by new information. (see Why Do We Forget?: The Roles of Decay and Interference)
 * 1) __Proactive interference__ occurs when old information in long-term memory interferes with the remembering of new information. (see Why Do We Forget?: The Roles of Decay and Interference)
 * 1) __Anterograde amnesia__ is a loss of memory for events that occur after a brain injury. Memory for experiences prior to the trauma remains intact. (see The Impact of Brain Damage)
 * 1) __Retrograde amnesia__ is a loss of memory of events prior to a brain injury. Memories encoded days or years before the injury or trauma can be lost. Usually most memories return. (see The Impact of Brain Damage)
 * 1) __Mnemonics__ are encoding methods that increase the efficiency of your memory. (see Improving Your Memory)
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 * 1) **Cognitive psychology** is the study of the mental processes people use to modify, make meaningful, store, retrieve, use, and communicate to others the information they receive from the environment. (see introductory section)
 * 2) An **information-processing system** receives information, represents information through symbols, and manipulates those symbols. (see The Circle of Thought)
 * 1) **Thinking** can be described as part of an information-processing system in which mental representations are manipulated in order to form new information. (see The Circle of Thought)
 * 2) A **reaction****time** is the amount of elapsed time between the presentation of a physical stimulus and an overt reaction to that stimulus. (see Mental Chronometry)
 * 1) **Evoked brain potentials** are small temporary changes in voltage that occur in the brain in response to stimuli. Psychologists can study information processing and can look for abnormal functioning in the brain by examining evoked potentials. (see Evoked Brain Potentials)
 * 1) **Concepts** are basic units of thought or categories with common properties. Artificial and natural concepts are examples. (see Concepts)
 * 2) **Formal concepts** are concepts that are clearly defined by a set of rules or properties. Each member of the concept meets all the rules or has all the defining properties, and no nonmember does. (see Concepts)
 * 1) **Natural concepts** are defined by a //general// set of features, not all of which must be present for an object to be considered a member of the concept. (see Concepts)
 * 1) A **prototype** is the best example of a natural concept. (see Concepts)
 * 1) **Propositions** are the smallest units of knowledge that can stand as separate assertions. Propositions are relationships between concepts or between a concept and a property of the concept. Propositions can be true or false. (see Propositions)
 * 1) **Schemas** are generalizations about categories of objects, events, and people. (see Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models)
 * 1) **Scripts** are mental representations of familiar sequences, usually involving activity. (see Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models)
 * 1) **Mental models** are clusters of propositions that represent people's understanding of how things work. (see Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models)
 * 1) **Images** are visual pictures represented in thought. Cognitive maps are one example. (see Images and Cognitive Maps)
 * 2) **Cognitive maps** are mental representations of familiar parts of your world. (see Images and Cognitive Maps)
 * 1) **Reasoning** is the process whereby people make evaluations, generate arguments, and reach conclusions. (see Thinking Strategies)
 * 2) **Formal reasoning** (also called logical reasoning) is the collection of mental procedures that yield valid conclusions. An example is the use of an algorithm. (see Thinking Strategies)
 * 3) **Algorithms** are systematic procedures that always produce solutions to problems. In an algorithm, a specific sequence of thought or set of rules is followed to solve the problem. Algorithms can be very time-consuming. (see Thinking Strategies)
 * 1) **Rules of logic** are sets of statements that provide a formula for drawing valid conclusions about the world. (see Thinking Strategies)
 * 2) **Syllogisms**, components of the reasoning process, are arguments made up of two propositions, called premises, and conclusions based on those premises. Syllogisms may be correct or incorrect. (see Thinking Strategies)
 * 1) **Informal reasoning** is used to assess the credibility of a conclusion based on the evidence available to support it. There are no foolproof methods in informal reasoning. (see Informal Reasoning)
 * 2) **Heuristics** are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to solve problems. (see Informal Reasoning)
 * 1) The **anchoring heuristic** is a biased method of estimating an event's probability by adjusting a preliminary estimate in light of new information rather than by starting again from scratch. Thus, the preliminary value biases the final estimate. (see Informal Reasoning)
 * 1) place, and the area now has one of the lowest crime rates in the city. Jean's parents think that the crime rate may have improved a little, but, despite the lower crime rate, they just cannot believe that the area is all that safe.
 * 2) The **representativeness heuristic** involves judging that an example belongs to a certain class
 * 3) of items by first focusing on the similarities between the example and the class and then determining whether the particular example has essential features of the class. However, many times people do not consider the frequency of occurrence of the class (the base-rate frequency), focusing instead on what is representative or typical of the available evidence. (see Informal Reasoning)
 * 1) The **availability heuristic** involves judging the probability of an event by how easily examples of the event come to mind. This leads to biased judgments when the probability of the mentally available events does not equal the actual probability of their occurrence. (see Informal Reasoning)
 * 1) **Mental sets** occur when knowing the solution to an old problem interferes with recognizing a solution to a new problem. (see Obstacles to Problem Solving)
 * 1) **Functional fixedness** occurs when a person fails to use a familiar object in a novel way in order to solve a problem. (see Obstacles to Problem Solving)
 * 1) **Confirmation bias** is a form of the anchoring heuristic. It involves a reluctance to abandon an initial hypothesis and a tendency to ignore information inconsistent with that hypothesis. (see Obstacles to Problem Solving)
 * 2) **Artificial intelligence (AI)** is the study of how to make computers "think" like humans, including how to program a computer to use heuristics in problem solving. (see Problem Solving by Computer)
 * 1) The **utility** of an attribute is its subjective, personal value. (see Evaluating Options)
 * 1) **Expected value** is the likely benefit a person will gain if he or she makes a particular decision several times. (see Evaluating Options)
 * 1) **Language** is composed of two elements: symbols, such as words, and a grammar. (see The Elements of Language)
 * 1) **Grammar** is the set of rules for combining symbols, or words, into sentences in a language. (see The Elements of Language)
 * 2) **Phonemes** are the smallest units of sound that affect the meaning of speech. (see From Sounds to Sentences)
 * 1) **Morphemes** are the smallest units of language that have meaning. (see From Sounds to Sentences)
 * 1) **Words** are made up of one or more morphemes. (see From Sounds to Sentences)
 * 1) **Syntax** is the set of rules that dictates how words are combined to make phrases and sentences. (see From Sounds to Sentences)
 * 1) **Semantics** is the set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences. (see From Sounds to Sentences)
 * 1) **Surface structures** of sentences are the order in which the words are arranged. (see Surface Structure and Deep Structure)
 * 2) The **deep structure** of a sentence is an abstract representation of the relationships expressed in a sentence, or, in other words, its various meanings. (see Surface Structure and Deep Structure)
 * 1) **Babblings** are the first sounds infants make that resemble speech. Babbling begins at about four months of age. (see The Development of Language)
 * 1) The **one-word stage** of speech is that period when children use one word to cover a number of objects and frequently make up new words. This stage lasts about six months. (see The Development of Language)